Cultural and Religious Boundaries • 1950-Present

Introduction: From Divergence to Conflict

As the former French and British Mandates gained their independence, many of these new Middle Eastern nations began to take strides towards redrawing their political borders along cultural and religious lines. Individuals such as Egyptian President Nasser began advocating for the formation of an Arab state, and sought to unify Egypt and Syria through the Pan-Arab movement. At the same time, Iraq, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, and Britain signed the Baghdad Pact, favoring British policies aimed at promoting a more Western style of nationalism. Although both the United Arab Republic and the Baghdad Pact dissolved in the 1950s, both agreements illustrate the manner in which culture continued to influence politics in the second half of the twentieth century.

The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is perhaps the most prominent example of the clash between political and religious borders in the Middle East. While it is difficult to categorize this enduring conflict along solely political, cultural, or religious lines, the fact remains that the push for national autonomy amongst various groups in the Middle Eastern region continues to define cultural and religious interactions today. Once again, the framing questions provide a guide for examining the most recent fifty years in Middle Eastern cultural history. Specific reading questions give more detailed discussion topics for use with the source materials provided.

Note: These resources build directly upon readings from the 1900-1949 Cultural and Religious Boundaries Section. While these resources have a greater focus on political issues stemming from religious identities, the 1900-1949 Section touches upon important information regarding the region's cultural and religious foundations.

Framing Questions
• What was the Baghdad Pact and what hope did it present for cooperation among Arab nations? Why did the pact fail?
• Examine extremist and activist groups such as Palestine's Hamas and the Ba'ath party in Syria and Iraq. What are the groups' fundamental beliefs? How do these beliefs prevent unity among Middle Eastern nations? Is terrorism the only option for political outsiders such as Hamas and the Kurds?
• What was the impact of the Shah's White Revolution in 1961 on women in Iran? How did the Iranian constitution after the 1979 revolution change the relationship between government and religion in this region?
• How does the link between government and religion in this region affect the prospects for democratic government in this region?

Cultural and Religious Boundaries • 1950-Present

Readings

Islam, Islamists, and Democracy

This essay helps illuminate the differences between traditionalist and progressive Islamic groups' views of democracy. According to the article, traditional Islamic fundamentalists argue with more progressive Muslims over the issue of divine versus popular sovereignty. Because the concept of popular sovereignty is essential to an effective democracy, much of the controversy regarding the democratization of the Muslim world hinges upon this very discussion. While political and economic motivations for democratization may be present in Islamic nations, so too are the very fundamentalist beliefs that hamper the progress of such democratic movements. These categorizations cannot be applied universally to all Islamic nations, but this article helps outline the divisions within the Islamic faith over the future of Middle Eastern governance.

Reading Guide Questions
• Give a brief summary of the differences between traditional fundamentalist Muslims and more moderate Muslims. How are they alike? How do they differ?
• Examine the role of civil society in the Middle East. Do Islamic nations seem to recognize a separate, secular society?
• How do are most leadership positions gained in the Middle East? Examine the societies listed and whether leaders are elected, aristocracies, or theocracies.
• What cultural modifications might help bring democracy to the Middle East? Do you think these changes are compatible with Islamic society?

---

Who is Responsible for the Taliban?
Afghanistan, though not officially an Islamic nation, is similar to nations more traditionally categorized as Middle Eastern nations in that it is rife with internal conflict between different ethnic and tribal groups. This article highlights some of those divisions and gives considerable background to the Taliban's role in Afghanistan in the later portion of the twentieth Century. This article is helpful in examining the recent history leading up to America's involvement in the war in Afghanistan.

Reading Guide Questions
• Name at least four of the tribal or ethnic groups that comprise the Afghan population. What role does the "curse of diversity" play in shaping civil society in Afghanistan?
•Examine the role of Afghan Arabs in bringing unity to the region? To what extent did they succeed? What motivated these individuals?
•What did the Taliban regime do to help support radical Islamism? In what ways did they alter the already chaotic Afghan society?

---

Examining the Kurds- "Sons of Devils" - The Atlantic Online.

Map- Distribution of Kurdish Peoples

This article highlights the heritage and history of the Kurdish population, which occupies a significant portion of the Middle East's mountainous regions in Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Syria, and the former Soviet Union. Written in 1987, the article examines the Kurdish population's role in a series of conflicts over the past century. Though acting without official statehood, Kurdistan flexes surprisingly strong political power due to its location within the boundaries of other major Middle Eastern nations. The Kurdish population presents a prime example of the way in Middle Eastern cultural and political borders are often skewed from one another.

Reading Guide Questions
• This article provides a relatively in-depth glance at the evolution of the Kurdish population. Examine the Kurds' role in key international conflicts. To what extent have the Kurds proved to be the "spoiler" in these conflicts?
• How have various Kurdish groups sought political representation within their respective nations? Have they been successful at voicing their own desires?
• How might the Kurdish population both help U.S. interests in some nations while hindering U.S. international efforts in other Middle Eastern regions?
• For additional reading, compare the presentation of the Kurds in Kaplan's article with those presented in this 1992 article: http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/kurds/mylroie.htm

---

Iran's Revolutions
The Shah's White Revolution
The 1979 Revolution

These two articles describe two of the most pivotal moment in Iranian history. While the Shah's White Revolution initiated a progressive movement towards a more modern society, the 1979 Revolution brought carried the support of numerous Iranians who opposed the initial reforms. These readings discuss the popular sentiments in the nation both before and after the 1963 and 1979 Revolutions.

Reading Guide Questions
• How do the sentiments expressed by the Iranian populations in both time periods reflect a tension between religious and political associations in Iran? In which time period do you think Iranian citizens benefited the most?
• How did early attempts at nationalization serve to undermine the intentions of the White Revolution's reforms?
• From which quarters did the leaders of the 1979 revolution draw their support? How closely related were Iran's domestic and international policies?

---

Religious Extremism

Baath Party History
Hamas Covenant
The Roots of Muslim Rage
Jewish Extremism

The Hamas Covenant outlines the beliefs and goals of the Islamic Resistance Movement and its desires for the Muslim faith. The group aims to restore Islam as a fundamental way of life and seeks to perpetuate an Islamic state in Palestine. Though lengthy, the document provides a first-hand exposure to the beliefs driving radical Islamic fundamentalist groups such as Hamas. The covenant also helps explain the relationship between Hamas and the Palestinian Liberation Organization. While it should be understood that this organization is not representative of all Islamic organizations, the beliefs voiced in this document help highlight the religious tensions at play in the Arab-Israeli conflict.

The Baath Party article and the "Roots of Muslim Rage" articles illustrate some of the other desires harbored by militant Muslim organizations. Understanding the roots of hatred on both sides of the Arab-Israeli conflict is crucial. The Jewish extremism article discusses the radical elements of the Jewish side of the Arab-Israeli conflict, highlighting the pivotal role events such as Rabin's assassination have played in hampering the peace process in this region. It is important for students to realize that there are two equally responsible groups involved in this cultural and religious conflict. Understanding this fact is the first necessary step towards analyzing the road to a peaceful resolution of the conflict.

Reading Guide Questions
• Given your own interpretation of the Hamas document, what do you feel the main goals of the Islamic Resistance Movement are? Does the group seem willing to compromise on these goals?
• In the "Definitions of the Movement" section, how does the organization draw its basis from historical struggles? How far back does the organization reach in discussing its goals?
• Examine the covenant's discussion of Jihad in article fifteen. Why does the organization state that Jihad is the duty of every Muslim? How might this belief alter the organization's willingness to achieve a peaceable solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict?
• Examine the Baath party's fundamental beliefs in comparison to Hamas. Note any similarities and differences. Does the Baath party's official status in Iraq and Syria change its role?
• How do Jewish Fundamentalist beliefs compare to those of Islamic Fundamentalists? Would you classify Jewish beliefs and actions as similarly radical? Why or why not?

---

Inside the Iranian Revolution

This story presents one reporter's first-hand experiences with life in Iran in 1981. Though lengthy, this article provides a rare perspective on the region and will allow students to see Iranian life through the eyes of two ordinary individuals, a reporter and his interpreter, a student. Teachers may wish to select certain excerpts from this essay, rather than the use the entire document.

Reading Guide Questions
• How does the author describe his observations of religious ritual as part of daily life in Iran? How does this compare to your own culture? How would a nation with a separation between church and state differ from Iran?
• What signs of violence and unrest does the author describe in his surroundings in Iran?
• What cultural differences do you see active in Iranian politics? What language barriers do the author and his translator face?

---

PBS News Hour Terrorism Lesson

In the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks many scholars and leaders have described the rise of Islamic fundamentalist terrorist organizations as a battle of civilizations, driven by cultural and religious motivations. This lesson plan helps examine the difference between revolutionaries and terrorists by confronting a series of case studies and characterizing the responsible parties as terrorists or revolutionaries.

Reading Guide Questions
• After examining the case studies provided, how does your opinion of Islamic and Israeli terrorist organizations changed? Do you feel this conflict should be judged by the same criteria as the others, or is it different?
• Can you think of any other situations in which an action considered to be a valid revolution by one nation or group is considered to be a terrorist act by another nation or group? Could the American Revolution be considered a terrorist act? Why or why not?

---

Additional Links

Exploration is the essential first step in reaching a greater understanding of this complex region. Additional links are provided for that purpose.

Distribution of Religions Map

This map paints a clearer picture of the religious diversity in this region and may be useful in pointing out regions with the greatest potential for religious conflict.

Christian Science Monitor's Perspectives on Terrorism
Available in both Flash and Low-Bandwidth formats, this site provides another interactive lesson on terrorism. The site discusses the difficulties in defining terrorism and provides additional terrorism case studies.

Islam in the United States
This State Department site helps illuminate the role of Islam in the United States. The U.S. has a large domestic Muslim population, and many of the cultural issues at play in the Middle East are similarly important to U.S. born Muslims. This site helps shorten the distance between the United States and the Middle East by presenting a thorough snap shot of life as a Muslim-American.

Culture through current events
This CNN student news page helps explain current events in a context that is accessible for students. Recent news stories accompany cultural and religious background articles to help students analyze recent events in their historical context. This site is a good one for further exploration after examining the resources in the Middle East toolbox.

Country Profiles
The Country Profiles page of this unit provides links to additional information on each nation in the region from both the US State Department and the US Central Intelligence Agency.