Imposed and Political Boundaries:
Imposed Boundaries: 1900 - 1950
Political Boundaries: 1950 - present
Introduction: Conflicts over Internal and External Cartography
With each of the former Class A Mandates having declared independence from its Mandatory power by 1950, interactions in the second half of the twentieth Century were conducted between independent nations, rather than imposing powers. Many of these nations were, however, dealing with the lasting repercussions of an era of imperial rule. With new-found independence, these nations began to act autonomously in their attempts to redraw their own political boundaries in accordance with national desires.
As Nationalist movements gained political momentum in each of these nations, each nation's ethnic, political, and religious groups began advocating for governmental decisions that would reflect their individual desires for the country. Supporters of movements such as Pan-Arabism and the Zionist movement sought to expand their nations' borders in accordance with their aims of exercising political control over religiously sacred lands. This commingling of political, religious, and even economic desires gave birth to a period of intense conflict among Middle Eastern nations. These readings attempt to trace the progression of a few pivotal conflicts, as well as illuminate some of the main governmental transitions during this era.
Because this period is marked by so many conflicts, it is difficult to provide reading material for every event. We encourage teachers and students to use the Timeline to trace the evolution of other events, as well as to provide further background for the readings provided. While these selections target the major political conflicts of the era, both the readings and the timeline provide a number of options for students and teachers wishing to research this era in greater depth.
Framing Questions
• How have Israel's borders both expanded and
contracted since 1949? How many of these expansions occurred from Israeli-initiated
conflicts, and how many were dependent upon Israel's allying itself on one
side of an existing conflict?
• Examine the evolution of the Iran-Iraq war.
What was the conflict over borders between the two nations? How did
broken treaties contribute to the war outbreak of war in 1980?
• Explain Iran's political culture before and
after the Shah's revolution in 1979. Begin with the Shah's exile in
1964.
• What was the effect of both the United Nations'
and United States' policies towards the Middle Eastern region during
this time period? How did U.S. policy in the 1950s contribute to the build-up
of arms in the region? What role did the fact that many Arab nations remained
un-aligned with U.S. or Soviet powers play?
• What was the continuing role of terrorism during
this era? How did the U.S. and other international powers react to
hostage crises in the region?
Political Boundaries • 1950-present
Readings
Arab-Israeli
Wars Handout
Palestinian
Declaration of Independence-
Maps of Israeli borders
Israel
after 1949 Armistice
Land
Occupied in the Six Days War
Jerusalem
after 1967
Palestinian
Controlled Areas since 1993
This five-page reading gives a brief history of each of the major wars in the Arab-Israeli conflict. The summaries allow students to examine the evolution of the conflict and determine the causes and consequences of military action in each instance. The reading is intended to be printed as a handout for students to use both for reading and for reference. For a greater understanding of the peace agreements reached at the conclusion of each of these wars, please refer to the Shared Borders section.
Reading Guide Questions
• Which territories have transferred between the control of Egyptian, Israeli,
and Arab forces over this fifty•year time period? Which areas appear to transfer
between nations most frequently?
• Choose two of the wars listed. How do the motivations of these two wars
compare? Which side instigated military engagement? Which nations emerged
victorious? Did outside nations get involved in the conclusion of the conflict?
• Some of the summaries discuss the notion of casus belli, a reason for engaging
in conflict. Examine the summaries to determine what you believe to be deciding
action that made conflict inevitable. Make note of whether you think fault
lies with one nation in particular, or more than one nation.
• Extension question- Have students discuss how their understanding of the
Arab-Israeli conflict has changed since examining the actual history of these
wars. Did students already have an understanding of this evolution, or does
this help clarify the situation? Have students discuss which side they support
in the conflict, if any, and why, based on these readings.
This writing was issued at the beginning of the Iranian Revolution
by Ayatollah Khomeni in an attempt to summarize his goals for the revolution
and rally the support of fellow Muslims. The document illustrates how religious
desires became one of the major political rallying points for the revolution.
Teachers can either print the document as a handout or access it online.
Reading Guide Questions
• Why does Khomeni fear Western intellectuals? What does he believe motivates
the actions of such intellectuals?
• Where does Khomeni claim the momentum for this revolution came from? What
implications does this origin have for the future of Iranian government?
• How does this writing compare to other political rallying pieces you have
encountered in your Middle Eastern studies? Would you classify this document
as the viewpoint of a religious fundamentalist?
The Iran-Iraq war lasted from 1980 to 1988 and was one of the longest, bloodiest military engagements of the past twenty-five years. This article, though lengthy, discusses the evolution of the conflict throughout the various stages of the war. As power transferred between Iranian and Iraqi forces, the conflict dragged on. Iraqi offensives in 1980-1982 were followed by Iraqi retreats in 1982-1984. The later years of the war progressed into a war of attrition in which both sides simply fought to lose fewer lives than their opponent. The Iran-Iraq war lasted nearly eight years, from September of 1980 until August of 1988. It ended when Iran accepted United Nations (UN) Security Council Resolution 598, leading to a August 20, 1988, cease-fire. This reading allows students to examine the progression of the conflict and understand the tensions at play between two of the Middle East's largest powers. This reading can be accessed either online or printed as a handout.
Note- For additional information on the cease-fire agreement,
see the Shared Borders section.
Reading Guide Questions
• What is your interpretation of the causes for the initial conflict? Explain
the importance of the Shatt al Arab waterway.
• How did relations between the two nations change as a result of the 1979
Iranian revolution? Did the revolution itself precipitate the war? Why or
why not?
• What problems did both Iran and Iraq encounter during the time period between
1984 and 1987? Why was neither side able to achieve decisive victory? Give
at least one major reason for failures on both sides.
• The Tanker war resulted in increased international participation in the
conflict. Explain the role of oil prices and the tanker war in gaining foreign
support. Do you think nations such as the U.S. had more than simply economic
incentives for intervening? Why or why not?
U.S. Policy in Iran- "America and Iran: From Containment to Coexistence"
In his 2002 State of the Union Address, President George W.
Bush identified Iran as a member of the "Axis of Evil." It is important
for students to understand U.S. policy in Iran outside of this specific context
and instead examine the evolution of U.S. policy in Iran over the past fifty
years. This Policy Brief examines the tensions between the U.S. and Iran and
the two nations' conflicting foreign policy goals since the Iranian Revolution
in 1979. This article focuses on the ways in which both the United States
and Iran can compromise in order to reform the relationship between the two
countries. This article can be printed as a adobe acrobat file for use as
a handout. Note: this reading may be more appropriate for upper-level students.
Reading Guide Questions
• Explain the basis for the "stand-off" between Iran and the United
States. What are the United States' three main concerns in the region? How
does Iranian policy towards the U.S. aid or hinder the United States' ability
to counter these three concerns?
• What would some of the benefits of bilateral actions between the two nations
be? What would the disadvantages be?
• The author presents six possible suggestions for future U.S. policy in Iran.
Examine three of those solutions and describe what each would entail.
U.S. Gulf War
Voices
in the Storm -
PBS-
Frontline Coverage of the Gulf War
Here are two extremely useful multimedia resources for an interactive
look at the 1990-91 Persian Gulf Crisis and Operations Desert Shield and Desert
Storm. The "Voices in the Storm" radio series presents wonderfully
produced analyses of the four major stages of the conflict, complete with
interviews with many key U.S. and international leaders who had critical roles
in the conflict. Though the Gulf War is only one of many conflicts in the
region, students can gain considerable insight into American Foreign Policy
in the Middle East over the past two decades through this site. Due to the
nature of the site, it is best used as an online activity. The Reading Guide
Questions can be used to help guide students' explorations through the site,
or as a set of questions to accompany the audio excerpts. (Requires RealPlayer
8).
Reading/ Listening Guide Questions
• As you browse this site, pay particular attention to how the United States
presented its position to the Iraqi government. Did the United States give
Iraq a chance to cooperate? What types of negotiations occurred prior to military
involvement?
• What did Iraq site as their reason for invading Kuwait? How does this invasion
reflect the continuing theme of conflicting cultural, political, and economic
borders?
• What parallels can you draw between this conflict and other Middle Eastern
wars? What do you think the significance of U.S. involvement was in the war?
Comparing
Britain in the earliest 20th century with the current U.S. role in Iraq
Note: Because of its applicability, this story is included in
both the Imposed Borders 1900-1949 and Political Borders 1950-2003 sections.
This NPR audio story discusses the similarities between the U.S. role in Iraq
today with Britain's role in Iraq during and after World War One. In pursuing
its creation of an Iraqi government in the former Ottoman regions of Mesopotamia,
Britain adopted portions of the rhetoric of peace and liberation that the
U.S. is currently pursuing. This story is not intended as criticism of current
foreign policy, but, rather, as a means of comparison between the two tumultuous
periods in Iraqi history. The platitude "history repeats itself"
seems to have tremendous application in this instance, and it is important
that students be able to connect the parallels between Britain's problems
with occupation and the reality of the obstacles the United States may face
in attempting to install a democratic government in Iraq. Teachers are encouraged
to let students listen to the parallels between these events.
Listening Guide Questions
• What was your reaction to the introductory segment of this news story? Despite
your awareness of Britain's role as a Mandatory power, did you realize the
striking comparisons between the two time periods?
• Do you think the U.S. has different intentions than the British? Can you
explain what differences you see?
• Challenge Question- What lessons can you draw from this story? If you were
asked to give Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and President Bush three
recommendations for U.S. action in Iraq based on this story, what would you
tell them or warn them about?
Additional Links
Lebanese
Hostage Crisis- 1985-1991
After seven years as a hostage in Lebanon, Associated Press reporter Terry Anderson was finally released from captivity on December 4, 1991. This story gives a detailed explanation of the ordeal, including a brief highlight of the Hezbollah organization responsible for the kidnapping. This story may be helpful in highlighting the enduring role of political terrorism in the Middle East.
BBC's
Crisis in the Gulf Coverage
This page is dedicated to bringing the most up-to-date information on the current situation in Iraq. Students may want to return to this site after studying the history of political conflicts in order to better understand the current situation.
Guidelines
for Discussing the War
This site provides helpful information for discussing
the current war in Iraq. The site has suggestions for framing discussions
in an educational manner and helping students gain as much as possible from
an informed debate. With a topic as controversial as war, students opinions
are bound to be sensitive, and this site has the potential to sort through
some of those difficulties.
Country
Profiles
The Country Profiles page of this unit provides links to additional information
on each nation in the region from both the US State Department and the US
Central Intelligence Agency.