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is perhaps no situation more frustrating for parents or teachers than living
or working with children who do not perform as well academically as their
potential indicates they can. These children are labeled as underachievers,
yet few people agree on exactly what this term means. At what point does
underachievement end and achievement begin? Is a gifted student who is failing
mathematics while doing superior work in reading an underachiever? Does
underachievement occur suddenly, or is it better defined as a series of
poor performances over an extended time period? Certainly, the phenomenon
of underachievement is as complex and multifaceted as the children to whom
this label has been applied.
Definition
of Underachievement
Early researchers
(Raph, Goldberg, and Passow, 1966) and some recent authors (Davis and
Rimm, 1989) have defined underachievement in terms of a discrepancy between
a child's school performance and some ability index such as an IQ score.
These definitions, although seemingly clear and succinct, provide little
insight to parents and teachers who wish to address this problem with
individual students. A better way to define underachievement is to consider
the various components.
Underachievement,
first and foremost, is a behavior and as such, it can change over time.
Often, underachievement is seen as a problem of attitude or work habits.
However, neither habits nor attitude can be modified as directly as behaviors.
Thus, referring to "underachieving behaviors" pinpoints those aspects
of children's lives which they are most able to alter.
Underachievement
is content and situation specific. Gifted children who do not succeed
in school are often successful in outside activities such as sports, social
occasions, and after-school jobs. Even a child who does poorly in most
school subjects may display a talent or interest in at least one school
subject. Thus, labeling a child as an "underachiever" disregards any positive
outcomes or behaviors that child displays. It is better to label the behaviors
than the child (e.g., the child is "underachieving in math and language
arts" rather than an "underachieving student").
Underachievement
is in the eyes of the beholder. For some students (and teachers and parents),
as long as a passing grade is attained, there is no underachievement.
"After all," this group would say, "A C is an average grade." To others,
a grade of B+ could constitute underachievement if the student in question
were expected to get an A. Recognizing the idiosyncratic nature of what
constitutes success and failure is the first step toward understanding
underachieving behaviors in students.
Underachievement
is tied intimately to self-concept development. Children who learn to
see themselves in terms of failure eventually begin to place self-imposed
limits of what is possible. Any academic successes are written off as
"flukes," while low grades serve to reinforce negative self-perceptions.
This self-deprecating attitude often results in comments such as "Why
should I even try? I'm just going to fail anyway," or "Even if I do succeed,
people will say it's because I cheated." The end product is a low self-concept,
with students perceiving themselves as weak in academics. Under this assumption,
their initiative to change or to accept a challenge is limited.
Strategies
To Reverse Patterns of Underachievement
Luckily,
it is easier to reverse patterns of underachieving behavior than it is
to define the term underachievement.
Whitmore
(1980) describes three types of strategies that she found effective in
working with underachieving behaviors in students:
- Supportive
Strategies. Classroom techniques and designs that allow students
to feel they are part of a "family," versus a "factory," include methods
such as holding class meetings to discuss student concerns; designing
curriculum activities based on the needs and interests of the children;
and allowing students to bypass assignments on subjects in which they
have previously shown competency.
- Intrinsic
Strategies. These strategies incorporate the idea that students'
self-concepts as learners are tied closely to their desire to achieve
academically (Purkey and Novak, 1984). Thus, a classroom that invites
positive attitudes is likely to encourage achievement. In classrooms
of this type, teachers encourage attempts, not just successes; they
value student input in creating classroom rules and responsibilities;
and they allow students to evaluate their own work before receiving
a grade from the teacher.
- Remedial
Strategies. Teachers who are effective in reversing underachieving
behaviors recognize that students are not perfect - that each child
has specific strengths and weaknesses as well as social, emotional and
intellectual needs. With remedial strategies, students are given chances
to excel in their areas of strength and interest while opportunities
are provided in specific areas of learning deficiencies. This remediation
is done in a "safe environment in which mistakes are considered a part
of learning for everyone, including the teacher.
The key
to eventual success lies in the willingness of parents and teachers to
encourage students whenever their performance or attitude shifts (even
slightly) in a positive direction.
Participation
in Gifted Programs
Students
who underachieve in some aspect of school performance, but whose talents
exceed the bounds of what is generally covered in the standard curriculum,
have a right to an education that matches their potential. To be sure,
a program for gifted students may need to alter its structure or content
to meet these students' specific learning needs, but this is preferable
to denying gifted children access to educational services that are the
most accommodating to their abilities.
Role
of the Family
The following
are some broad guidelines - representing many viewpoints - for strategies
to prevent or reverse underachieving behavior.
- Supportive
strategies. Gifted children thrive in a mutually respectful, nonauthoritarian,
flexible, questioning atmosphere. They need reasonable rules and guidelines,
strong support and encouragement, consistently positive feedback, and
help to accept some limitations - their own, as well as those of others.
Although these principles are appropriate for all children, parents
of gifted children, believing that advanced intellectual ability also
means advanced social and emotional skills, may allow their children
excessive decision-making power before they have the wisdom and experience
to handle such responsibility (Rimm, 1986).
Gifted
youngsters need adults who are willing to listen to their questions
without comment. Some questions merely preface their own opinions,
and quick answers prevent them from using adults as a sounding board.
When problem solving is appropriate, offer a solution and encourage
students to come up with their own answers and criteria for choosing
the best solution. Listen carefully. Show genuine enthusiasm about
students' observations, interests, activities, and goals. Be sensitive
to problems, but avoid transmitting unrealistic or conflicting expectations
and solving problems a student is capable on managing.
Provide
students with a wide variety of opportunities for success, a sense
of accomplishment, and a belief in themselves. Encourage them to volunteer
to help others as an avenue for developing tolerance, empathy, understanding,
and acceptance of human limitations. Above all, guide them toward
activities and goals that reflect their values, interests, and needs,
not just yours. Finally, reserve some time to have fun, to be silly,
to share daily activities. Like all youngsters, gifted children need
to feel connected to people who are consistently supportive (Webb,
Meckstroth, & Tolan, 1982).
- Intrinsic
strategies. Whether or not a gifted youngster uses exceptional ability
in constructive ways depends, in part, on self-acceptance and self-concept.
According to Halsted (1988), "an intellectually gifted child will not
be happy [and] complete until he is using intellectual ability at a
level approaching full capacity.... It is important that parents and
teachers see intellectual development as a requirement for these children,
and not merely as an interest, a flair, or a phase they will outgrow"
(p. 24).
Providing
an early and appropriate educational environment can stimulate an
early love for learning. A young, curious student may easily become
"turned off" if the educational environment is not stimulating; class
placement and teaching approaches are inappropriate; the child experiences
ineffective teachers; or assignments are consistently too difficult
or too easy. The gifted youngster's ability to define and solve problems
in many ways (often described as fluency of innovative ideas or divergent
thinking ability) may not be compatible with traditional gifted education
programs or specific classroom requirements, in part because many
gifted students are identified through achievement test scores (Torrance,
1977). According to Linda Silverman (1989), Director of the Gifted
Child Development Center in Denver, Colorado, a student's learning
style can influence academic achievement. She contends that gifted
underachievers often have advanced visual-spatial ability but underdeveloped
sequencing skills; thus they have difficulty learning such subjects
as phonics, spelling, foreign languages and mathematics facts in the
way in which these subjects are usually taught (Silverman, 1989).
Such students can often can be helped by knowledgeable adults to expand
their learning styles, but they also need an environment that is compatible
with their preferred ways of learning. Older students can participate
in pressure-free, noncompetitive summer activities that provide a
wide variety of educational opportunities, including in-depth exploration,
hands-on learning, and mentor relationships (Berger, 1989).
Some
students are more interested in learning than in working for grades.
Such students might spend hours on a project that is unrelated to
academic classes and fail to turn in required work. They should be
strongly encouraged to pursue their interests, particularly since
those interests may lead to career decisions and life-long passions.
At the same time, they should be reminded that teachers may be unsympathetic
when required work is incomplete. Early career guidance emphasizing
creative problem solving, decision making, and setting short- and
long-term goals often helps them to complete required assignments,
pass high school courses, and plan for college (Berger, 1989). Providing
real-world experiences in an area of potential career interest may
also provide inspiration and motivation toward academic achievement.
Praise
versus encouragement. Overemphasis on achievement or outcomes rather
than a child's efforts, involvement, and desire to learn about topics
of interest is a common parental pitfall. The line between pressure
and encouragement is subtle but important. Pressure to perform emphasizes
outcomes such as winning awards and getting A's, for which the student
is highly praised. Encouragement emphasizes effort, the process used
to achieve, steps taken toward accomplishing a goal, and improvement.
It leaves appraisal and valuation to the youngster. Underachieving
gifted students may be thought of as discouraged individuals who need
encouragement but tend to reject praise as artificial or inauthentic
(Kaufmann, 1987). Listen carefully to yourself. Tell your children
when you are proud of their efforts.
- Remedial
Strategies. Dinkmeyer and Losoncy (1980) caution parents to avoid
discouraging their children by domination, insensitivity, silence, or
intimidation. Discouraging comments, such as "If you're so gifted, why
did you get a D in _____?'' or "I've given you everything; why are you
so _____?'' are never effective. Constant competition may also lead
to underachievement, especially when a child consistently feels like
either a winner or a loser. Avoid comparing children with others. Show
children how to function in competition and how to recover after losses.
Study-skills
courses, time-management classes, or special tutoring may be ineffective
if a student is a long-term underachiever. This approach will work
only if the student is willing and eager, if the teacher is chosen
carefully, and the course is supplemented by additional strategies
designed to help the student. On the other hand, special tutoring
may help the concerned student who is experiencing short-term academic
difficulty. In general, special tutoring for a gifted student is most
helpful when the tutor is carefully chosen to match the interests
and learning style of the student. Broad-ranged study-skills courses
or tutors who do not understand the student may do more harm than
good.
Conclusion
Some students,
particularly those who are highly capable and participate in a variety
of activities, appear to be high achievers when learning in a highly structured
academic environment, but are at risk of underachieving if they cannot
establish priorities, focus on a selected number of activities, and set
long-term goals. On the other hand, some students appear to be underachievers
but are not uncomfortable or discouraged. They may be quite discontent
in middle or secondary school (in part because of the organization and
structure), but happy and successful when learning in an environment with
a different structural organization. They may handle independence quite
well.
Underachievement
is made up of a complex web of behaviors, but it can be reversed by parents
and educators who consider the many strengths and talents possessed by
the students who may wear this label.
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References
Berger, S. (1989). College planning for gifted
students. Reston, VA: The ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted
Education.
Davis, G. A. and Rimm, S. B. (1989). Education of
the gifted and talented (2nd Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Dinkmeyer, D. and Losoncy, L. (1980). The encouragement
book. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Gardner, H. (1985). Frames of mind: The theory of
multiple intelligences, (rev. ed.). New York: Basic Books.
Halsted, J. W. (1988), Guiding gifted readers - From
preschool to high school. Columbus: Ohio Psychology Publishing.
Purkey, W. W. and Novak, J. A. (1984). Inviting school
success (2nd Ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Raph, J. B., Goldberg, M. L. and Passow, A. H. (1966).
Bright underachievers. New York: Teachers College Press.
Rimm, S. (1986). The underachievement syndrome: Causes
and cures. Watertown, WI: Apple Publishing Company.
Silverman, L. (March, 1989). Spatial learners. Understanding
Our Gifted, 1 (4), pp. 1, 7, 8, 16.
Silverman, L. (Fall, 1989). The visual-spatial learner.
Preventing School Failure, 34 (1), 15-20.
Torrance, E. P. (1977). Encouraging creativity in
the classroom. Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown.
Webb, J., Meckstroth, E., & Tolan, S. (1982). Guiding
the gifted child. Columbus, OH: Ohio Publishing Company.
Whitmore, J. F. (1980). Giftedness, conflict and
underachievement. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Resources for Students
Adderholdt-Elliott, M. (1987). Perfectionism.
What's bad about being too good? Explores the problem of perfectionism,
explains the differences between healthy ambition and unhealthy perfectionism,
and gives strategies for getting out of the perfectionist trap.
Bottner, B. (1986). The world's greatest expert on
absolutely everything...is crying. New York: Dell Publishers. Deals
with how perfectionism affects interpersonal relationships.
Delisle, J., & Galbraith, J.(1987). The Gifted Kids
Survival Guide II. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit. Helps students understand
the meaning of giftedness, how to take charge of their own education,
how to handle other people's expectations, how to make and keep friends.
This book is a sequel to Galbraith, J. (1983), The Gifted Kids Survival
Guide (for ages 11-18). Free Spirit Publishing Co., 123 N. Third St.,
Suite 716, Minneapolis, MN 55401.
Dinkmeyer, D. and Losoncy, L. (1980). The encouragement
book. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Provides a plan, strategies,
hints, and tips for helping discouraged students.
Ellis, D. (1994). Becoming a master student (7th
ed.). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Written primarily for college students,
this book provides dynamic ways of teaching study skills, time-management,
and goal-setting. Students are encouraged to try innovative approaches
to academic and life management skills. Available from Houghton-Mifflin
Co., Wayside Road, Burlington, MA 01803.
Galbraith, J. (1984) The Gifted Kids Survival Guide,
Ages 10 and under. Support and practical suggestions for gifted youngsters
who are struggling with typical problems such as school work, peer relationships,
and community expectations. Free Spirit Publishing Co., 123 N. Third
St., Suite 716, Minneapolis, MN 55401.
Halsted, J. W. (1988), Guiding gifted readers - From
preschool to high school. Columbus: Ohio Psychology Publishing. A guide
to using bibliotherapy and an excellent annotated list of books to use
with gifted students.
Harvey, J. & Katz, C. (1986). If I'm so successful,
why do I feel like a fake? The impostor phenomenon. New York: Pocket
Books.
Heide, F. & Chess, V. (1985). Tales for the perfect
child. New York: Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Books. Presents a funny look
at what would happen if children were perfect.
Manes, S. (1987). Be a perfect person in just three
days. New York: Bantam/Skylark Books. A student decides that he wants
to be perfect and finds a book on the topic.
McDermott, G. (1980). Sun flight. Soquel, CA: Four
Winds Press. Shows students how aiming too high with unrealistic standards
can be self-defeating.
McGee-Cooper, A. Time management for unmanageable
people. PO Box 64784, Dallas, TX 75206. Provides a "right-brain" method
for work/study skills and time-management. Suggestions include "reward
yourself first and then do your assignments."
On being gifted. (1976). New York: Walker and Co.
Written by students (ages 15 to 18) who participated in the National
Student Symposium on the Education of the Gifted and Talented, this
book is an articulate presentation of student concerns such as peer
pressure, teacher expectations, and relationships.
Smith, D. (1978). Dreams and drummers. New York:
Thomas Y. Crowell Publishers. The story of a perfectionist who learns
that we cannot always be Number One at everything.
Zadra, D. (1986). Mistakes are great. Mankato, MN:
Creative Education. Provides examples of famous mistakes and how they
can be turned into positive learning experiences.
Prepared by James Delisle, Coordinator of Gifted Education, Kent State
University, Kent, Ohio and author of Gifted Children Speak Out;
and Sandra L. Berger, author of College Planning for Gifted Students.
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